Functional English Grammar:
An Introduction for Second Language Teachers
TRUONG VAN ANH
Sai Gon Univerity
Unit 7
Interpersonal function 2: Modality: deontic and epistemic
LIKELIHOOD
Likelihood includes the four following items:
Modal auxiliaries
Modal adjuncts (certainly, possibly, probably)
Attributive clauses
Mental process clauses of cognition
Modal auxiliaries of likelihood
There are three levels of modals of likelihood:
High: Certainly
You have won the lottery. You must be happy.
Mid: Probably
A- Where’s Mai?
B- She ought to be at school. Today’s Monday.
- Low: Possibly
A- Mai’s not at home. Where’s she?
B- She may be at her club.
Notes:
- High negative: Can’t
Ex: You can’t be sad. (You have won the lottery)
- Mid negative: Shouldn’t
Ex: Mai shouldn’t be in the dormitory on Monday.
- Low negative: May not
Ex: Mai may not be in the market.
- Mustn’t: Prohibition
Ex: People mustn’t trade opium.
Deductions and predictions
Predictions are based on a certain premise. They are typically about the future but can also be about the present or past.
Deductions are based on direct or indirect evidence. They are typically about the present or past but can also be about the future.
Deductions Predictions
He won the lottery. He He didn’t win the lottery.
must have been happy. He may have been sad.
He wins the lottery. He The lights are turned on.
must be happy. He may be at home.
He wins the lottery. If you put the fried fish
He can’t be poor. there, the cat may eat it.
Likelihood based on conditions
There are two kinds of conditions: real and unreal.
In real conditions, tenses are based on the time. In unreal conditions, tenses are one step back in the past.
Ex: If I were in the US now, I would buy presents for you.
(Now I am in VN and I will not give you present.)
Teaching conditions
Usually, there are three types of conditions. The meanings of conditions are strictly based on the types: future possible, present unreal and past unreal).
The information should be known, based on the specific types of conditions.
It may be worth noting that a further type of conditional using SHOULD.
Ex: Should you have any questions, please feel free to contact me. (Very formal)
Personal judgments of likelihood
It is implied that the writer or speaker uses modals of likelihood to express some personal judgment.
Expressions such as I think, I doubt, I am sure, etc. function more like modal adjunctions than like full mental or attributive clauses.
Ex: I am sure that our living standard will be higher.
Impersonal judgments of likelihood
Formal subject IT may be used to express impersonal judgments of likelihood. Then it removes the speaker or writer’s personal responsibility for judgment.
Ex: It is inevitable that our living standard will be higher.
It is important that students should not take weapons to school.
REQUIREMENT
To express requirements, one uses modal auxiliaries, clauses with verbs such as permit and require, and clauses with Attributes such as necessary and advisable.
Modal auxiliaries of requirement
There are three levels of requirement
High requirement: obligation or necessity
Positive: We must obey the regulations.
Negative: We must not violate the regulations.
Mid requirement: advice
Positive: We should work hard.
Negative: We should not stay up late.
Low requirement: permission
Positive: You may pick some guavas in the garden.
Negative: You may not pick flowers in the garden.
Note: Modal perfect can express past requirement.
Personal and impersonal judgments of requirement
Clauses with verbs such as advise, require, forbid, expect, allow, permit can be used to make judgments of requirement.
Ex: I allow you to eat this apple. (personal)
You are allowed to eat this apple. (impersonal)
Clauses with adjectives of requirement achieve more impersonal effect.
Ex: It is compulsory for you to obey the regulations. (impersonal)
Other areas of modality
Modality includes frequency, inclination, potentiality, and ability.
Frequency
Frequency expresses judgments about how often a state of affairs is.
Ex: She’ll take your books whenever you’re away.
(meaning often takes your books)
That flavor can be very unpleasant.
(meaning sometimes)
In teaching we should use adjuncts of frequency clearly instead of modal auxiliaries.
Requirement expresses the strength of a directive while inclination expresses the strength of an offer to do something.
Low inclination: I’ll finish the washing so that you do nothing.
Mid inclination: I will tell you what the activity is.
High inclination: I will give you some money and you can’t refuse.
Other ways of expressing inclination are:
Low willingness: I am willing to mow the grass.
Mid intention: I’m going to wash your clothes.
High determination: I was determined to reach that top.
Ability and potentiality
Can and be able to refer to ability.
Ex: Jack can play the piano.
Jack is able to play the piano.
Can expresses potentiality.
Ex: The direction of the storm can be changed.
Could expresses past ability and potentiality.
Ex: My father could type well.
My village could produce more rice.
Could also combines with relative past tense (modal perfect).
Ex: He could have passed the entrance exam to Medical University.
Potentiality can be expressed impersonally.
Ex: It is possible that she is learning now.
It is possible to dry hay now.
Conclusion: The same modals can be used to express different kinds of modal meanings. Learners face difficulties when controlling modality.
Modality, context, and speech act
In different areas of modal meaning and contexts, a particular modal expression will vary significantly.
Ex: You may sit down.
The clause may be classified as low requirement (permission). In a context where a teacher says that clause to his students, the clause is an order which to be obeyed.
Ex: He’s not here. He may be in the canteen.
Learning and teaching modality
The modal auxiliaries can present three problems: (1) the same modal may be used to express different types of modal meanings, (2) different modals may express the same/overlapping modal meanings, and (3) the precise meaning or force of a modal may vary in different context.
Simple modal auxiliaries should be for elementary learners, and the levels of modal auxiliaries should be increased for intermediate and advanced learners.
Identify expressions of modality in the following sentences and say which meaning (likelihood or requirement) is expressed in each case. Underline the expressions and write L for likelihood or R for requirement in the spaces provided.
e.g. L It can’t be true.
1. _____ In case you should need any help, here’s my number.
2. _____ You should be learning English now.
3. _____ He must be in the cupboard. I can hear scratching noise.
4. ____ I am sure that I will visit them again.
5. ____ You have to be quiet while I talk to her.
6. ____ Somebody must have taken the message.
7. ____ The police have been told that they may search newsrooms without warning.
8. ____ They hold a conference. This should give the members a greater opportunity to share the ideas.
9. ____ Animal lovers who think that hunting is cruel but do not subscribe to the extremist view should first ensure that they know all the facts.
10. ____The earth might be just as old as the moon.
Good luck!
nguon VI OLET
