Punctuation

Punctuation Marks
Mr. Ánh
The Comma
Use a comma before a co-ordinating conjunction that joins independent clauses (unless the independent clauses are very short):
I wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but my van still smelled like trout for the next week. (commas with two independent clauses)
She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary with short clauses)

Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause and, often, after an introductory phrase (unless the phrase is very short):
After the hospital had completed its fund-raising campaign, an anonymous donor contributed an additional $10,000. (after introductory adverb clause)
From the east wall to the west, her cottage measures twenty feet. (after introductory prepositional phrase)
In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no comma with short, closely related phrase)
Use a comma to separate items in a series:
Playing in a band can be exciting, but many people do not realize the hardships involved: constant rehearsals, playing until 2 a.m., handling drunken audience members, and transporting heavy equipment to and from gigs. (the comma preceding "and" is optional unless needed to prevent misreading)
Use commas to set off non-restrictive elements and other parenthetical elements. A non-restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that does not restrict or limit the meaning of the word it is modifying. It is, in a sense, interrupting material that adds extra information to a sentence. Even though removing the non-restrictive element would result in some loss of meaning, the sentence would still make sense without it. You should usually set off non-restrictive elements with commas:
The people of Haiti, who for decades have lived with grinding poverty and mind-numbing violence, are unfamiliar with the workings of a true democracy.
A restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of what it modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence. You should not set off restrictive elements with commas:
Those residents of Ottawa who do not hold secure, well-paying jobs must resent the common portrayal of the city as a land of opportunity.
Placing parenthetical information between dashes has the opposite effect: it emphasizes the material:
Mr. Grundy`s driving record - with one exception - was exemplary.
Nevertheless, you should usually set off parenthetical information with commas.
Mr. Grundy`s driving record, with one exception, was exemplary.
The Semicolon
You will usually use the semicolon to link independent clauses not joined by a co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.
Abdominal exercises help prevent back pain; proper posture is also important.
The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been adopted so far.
Do not use a semicolon to link a dependent clause or a phrase to an independent clause.
Generally, you should not place a semicolon before a co-ordinating conjunction that links two independent clauses. The only exception to this guideline is if the two independent clauses are very long and already contain a number of commas.
There is one exception to this guideline. When punctuating a list or series of elements in which one or more of the elements contains an internal comma, you should use semicolons instead of commas to separate the elements from one another:
Henry`s mother believes three things: that every situation, no matter how grim, will be happily resolved; that no one knows more about human nature than she; and that Henry, who is thirty-five years old, will never be able to do his own laundry.
The Colon
The colon focuses the reader`s attention on what is to follow, and as a result, you should use it to introduce a list, a summation, or an idea that somehow completes the introductory idea. You may use the colon in this way, however, only after an independent clause:
He visited three cities during his stay in the Maritimes: Halifax, Saint John and Moncton.
Their lobbying efforts were ultimately useless: the bill was soundly defeated.
My mother gave me one good piece of advice: to avoid wasting time and energy worrying about things I cannot change.
You should not place a colon between a verb and its object or subject complement, or between a preposition and its object.
End Punctuation
The punctuation marks that signal the end of a sentence are the period, the question mark and the exclamation mark.
You use the period, by far the most common of the end punctuation marks, to terminate a sentence that makes a statement. You may also use periods with imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or excitement attached:
Turn right at the stop sign.
When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong emotion, you may end your imperative sentences and statements with anexclamation mark:
Look out below!
Leave this house at once!
I hate him!
Exclamation marks are, however, rare in formal writing. Use them sparingly, if at all.



You should use the question mark at the end of a direct question:
Who`s on first?
Where is my flowered cape?
Be careful not to use a question mark at the end of an indirect question. Indirect questions are simply statements, and therefore end with a period:
I wonder who was chosen as Harvest King in the county fair.
She asked if she could play pinball.
The teacher asked who was chewing gum.
Quotation Marks
The exact rules for quotation marks vary greatly from language to language and even from country to country within the English-speaking world. In usage, you should place double quotation marks (") before and after directly quoted material and words of dialogue:
One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply the best film ever made about potato farming."
May replied, "This is the last cookie."
You also use quotation marks to set off certain titles, usually those of minor or short works -- essays, short stories, short poems, songs, articles in periodicals, etc. For titles of longer works and separate publications, you should use italics (or underlined, if italics are not available). Use italics for titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films, plays, long poems, long musical works, and television and radio programs.
Once when I was sick, my father read me a story called "The Happy Flower," which was later made into a movie entitled Flower Child, starring Tiny Tim.
Sometimes, you will use quotation marks to set off words specifically referred to as terms, though some publishers prefer italics:
I know you like the word "unique," but do you really have to use it ten times in one essay?
"Well" is sometimes a noun, sometimes an adverb, sometimes an adjective and sometimes a verb.
Quotations Marks with Other Punctuation
One question that frequently arises with quotation marks is where to place other punctuation marks in relation to them. Again, these rules vary from region to region, but North American usage is quite simple:
Commas and periods always go inside the quotation marks.
I know you are fond of the story "Children of the Corn," but is it an appropriate subject for your essay?
"At last," said the old woman, "I can say I am truly happy."
Semicolons and colons always go outside the quotation marks.
She never liked the poem "Dover Beach"; in fact, it was her least favourite piece of Victorian literature.
He clearly states his opinion in the article "Of Human Bondage": he believes that television has enslaved and diminished an entire generation.
Question marks, exclamation marks, and dashes go inside quotation marks when they are part of the quotation, and outside when they do not.
Where is your copy of "The Raven"?
"How cold is it outside?" my mother asked.
Note that in North American usage, you should use single quotation marks (`) only to set off quoted material (or a minor title) inside a quotation.
"I think she said `I will try,` not `I won`t try,`" explained Sandy.
The Apostrophe
You should use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of a nounor to show that you have left out letters in a contraction. Note that you should not generally use contractions in formal, academic writing.
The convertible`s engine has finally died. (The noun "convertible`s" is in the possessive case)
I haven`t seen my roommate for two weeks. (The verb "haven`t" is a contraction of "have not")
The Dash
As noted in the section on commas, you can use a dash at the beginning and end of parenthetical information. Usually, you will use dashes when you want to emphasise the information, but you might also use them if the parenthetical information is too long or abrupt to be set off with commas.
I think you would look fine wearing either the silk blouse - the one with the blue pattern - or the angora sweater. (abrupt interruption)
The idea of returning to the basics in the classroom - a notion which, incidentally, has been quietly supported for years by many respected teachers - is finally gaining some currency with school administrators. (lengthy interruption containing internal commas)
You can use a dash to conclude a list of elements, focusing them all toward one point.
Chocolate, cream, honey and peanut butter - all go into this fabulously rich dessert.
Dashes also mark sharp turns in thought.
We pored over exotic, mouth-watering menus from Nemo Catering, Menu du Jour, Taste Temptations, and three other reputable caterers - and rejected them all.
The parenthesis
Use parentheses ( ) to include material that you want to de-emphasize or that wouldn`t normally fit into the flow of your text but you want to include nonetheless. If the material within parentheses appears within a sentence, do not use a capital letter or period to punctuate that material, even if the material is itself a complete sentence. (A question mark or exclamation mark, however, might be appropriate and necessary.) If the material within your parentheses is written as a separate sentence (not included within another sentence), punctuate it as if it were a separate sentence.
Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost (we remember him at Kennedy`s inauguration) remains America`s favorite poet.

Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost (do you remember him?) remains America`s favorite poet.

Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost remains America`s favorite poet. (We remember him at Kennedy`s inauguration.)
If the material is important enough, use some other means of including it within your text—even if it means writing another sentence. Note that parentheses tend to de-emphasize text whereas dashes tend to make material seem even more important.
The bracket
You can use them to include explanatory words or phrases within quoted language:
Lew Perkins, the Director of Athletic Programs, said that Pumita Espinoza, the new soccer coach [at Notre Dame Academy] is going to be a real winner.
If you are quoting material and you`ve had to change the capitalization of a word or change a pronoun to make the material fit into your sentence, enclose that changed letter or word(s) within brackets:
Espinoza charged her former employer with "falsification of [her] coaching record."
If you have italicized or underlined words within quoted language that was not italicized or underlined in the original, you can note that change in brackets included within the sentence or paragraph:
It was the atmosphere of the gym that thrilled Jacobs, not the eight championship banners hanging from the beams [italics added].("Italics mine" or "emphasis added" would be other acceptable phrases.)
You can use brackets to include parenthetical material inside parenthetical material:
Chernwell was poet laureate of Bermuda (a largely honorary position [unpaid]) for ten years.
The hyphen
creating compound words, particularly modifiers before nouns (the well-known actor, my six-year-old daughter, the out-of-date curriculum
writing numbers twenty-one to ninety-nine and fractions (five-eighths, one-fourth)
creating compounds on-the-fly for fly-by-night organizations
adding certain prefixes to words: When a prefix comes before a capitalized word or the prefix is capitalized, use a hyphen (non-English, A-frame, I-formation). The prefixes self-, all-, and ex- nearly always require a hyphen (ex-husband, all-inclusive, self-control), and when the prefix ends with the same letter that begins the word, you will often use a hyphen (anti-intellectual, de-emphasize), but not always (unnatural, coordinate, cooperate).
Suspended Compounds
With a series of nearly identical compounds, we sometimes delay the final term of the final term until the last instance, allowing the hyphen to act as a kind of place holder, as in
The third- and fourth-grade teachers met with the parents.
Both full- and part-time employees will get raises this year.
We don`t see many 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children around here.
The ellipsis
An ellipsis [ … ] proves to be a handy device when you`re quoting material and you want to omit some words. The ellipsis consists of three evenly spaced dots (periods) with spaces between the ellipsis and surrounding letters or other marks. Let`s take the sentence, "The ceremony honored twelve brilliant athletes from the Caribbean who were visiting the U.S." and leave out "from the Caribbean who were":
The ceremony honored twelve brilliant athletes … visiting the U.S.
If the omission comes after the end of a sentence, the ellipsis will be placed after the period, making a total of four dots. … See how that works? Notice that there is no space between the period and the last character of the sentence.
The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in the flow of a sentence and is especially useful in quoted speech:
Juan thought and thought … and then thought some more.
"I`m wondering …" Juan said, bemused.
The slash
A slash or slant or solidus or virgule [ / ] (take your pick of names) is used to indicate a choice between the words it separates.
Using the pass/fail option backfired on her; she could`ve gotten an A.






Good luck!