SOCIOLINGUISTICS
UNIT 4
TRƯƠNG VĂN ÁNH
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC SÀI GÒN
UNIT 3: SPEECH ACTS AND SPEECH EVENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
To understand language use in society, we will study two basic concepts: one is speech acts theory while the other is speech events theory. These theories are based on the interpretation of speeches because they are accepted by people in society. We will study these two theories and examine their implications in sociolinguistics. The two theories will help us understand the interpretation of individual language in the larger society.
II. GENERAL OVERVIEW
Speech acts and speech events deal with how language is performed in society. Language is used in order to play specific functions in communicative contacts. Meaning and usage of language are the aspects linguists have paid their attention to. The information of language use in linguistic groups is the objective that linguists want to get. Linguists pay more attention to two respects that they use to analyze the situations in which minority languages are spoken and for defending the rights of minority groups than other
professionals. Accepting a linguistic variety, linguists defend linguistic minorities with their stable status in the mother tongue.
Studying language use, linguists pay their attention to the locus of most sociolinguistic and anthropological-linguistic research on a body of naturally-occurring speech or signed data. They focus on language variation and change, ways of speaking, and patterns of choice among elements in a linguistic repertoire. They do their research on speech situations in the community in different linguistic forms which emphasize the use of speech over perception or attitudes.
III. SPEECH ACTS
When using language, we not only make propositional statements about objects, entities, states of affairs and so on, but we also fulfill functions such as requesting, denying, introducing, apologizing, etc.
Identifying the speech act being performed by a particular utterance can only be done if we know the context in which the utterance takes place.
Speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. (Richards et al., 1985: 265).
When we make up a sentence, it has not only proposition/meaning but also some function.
The functions of sentences are grouped into six kinds:
Representative
Expressive
Directive
Rogative
Commissive
Declarative
Speech acts, according to them, have four important categories:
i) Locutionary acts
Locutionary meaning is its basic literal meaning conveyed by its particular words and structures.
A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.
Ex: I am hungry. (I am suffering from my hunger)
ii) Illocutionary acts (Illocutionary force)
Illocutionary meaning, the effect on the utterance, might have on the hearer.
An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.
Ex: A: I am hungry. (Give me something to eat)
B: I’ll bring you a sandwich.
The illocutionary meaning of “I am hungry.” is that A indirectly requests B to give him something to eat.
iii) Perlocutionary acts
Perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.
From A and B, the result is that A will eat a sandwich.
iv) Propositional acts
Propositional act has to do with the content of utterances, the basic acts of referring and predicating, wherein a speaker refers to something and then characterizes it.
There are six kinds of speech act:
a. The representative
The representative describes a state of affairs in the world: asserting, stating, claiming, affirming, making hypotheses, describing, predicting, reporting, etc.
The representative can be true or false.
Ex: Lan: What are you?
Diep: I am a teacher.
“I am a teacher” is a representative. Diep states his job.
b. The commissive
The commissive commits the speaker to a course of action: promising, vowing, threatening, offering, etc.
Ex: (Diep to Lan): I’ll love you forever.
Diep indirectly promises to love Lan forever.
c. The declarative
The declarative changes the world by bringing about or altering the state of affairs it names: dismissing, sentencing, naming, announcing, declaring, etc.
Ex: (Judge) I now declare you are innocent.
d. The directive
The directive intends to get the listener to carry out an action: commanding, requesting, begging, warning, challenging, inviting, suggesting, giving advice, etc.
Ex: (Aunt Hai Lua): The pigs are shouting.
(Uncle Hai Lua): Feed them.
“Feed them” is a directive.
e. The expressive
The expressive indicates the speaker’s psychological state or feeling/attitude about something: greeting, apologizing, complaining,
thanking, etc.
Ex: The food is fabulous.
The speaker shows that he likes the food.
f. The rogative
The rogative refers to a special kind of directives which deals with requests for information and which is typically in form of a question.
Ex: Lan: What are you?
Diep: I am a teacher.
“What are you?” is a rogative: Lan directly asks/requests Diep for some information on his job.
IV. SPEECH EVENTS
Dell Hymes (1972) states that speech event relates to social interactional events involving communication and ways to use speech resources of the community.
According to Hymes, the components of a speech event include:
i) Setting
This is the place or environment where people interact with each other. It is the context in which people use language to be in communicative contact. In general, it is the society where the linguistic forms are used.
ii) Participants
People who take part in the speech situation are called participants. People contact and understand each other by using language which plays the role as a means of communication.
iii) Ends
The results and goals of each speech situation are called ends. People communicate to achieve a target and a goal.
iv) Act sequences
Act sequences are the forms and contents of speech situations. It is the information being communicated and the language in such communication may be oral or written, formal or informal.
v) Key
Key is the manner of speech events. It deals with the way that communication is effected, whether it is through discussion, discourse or performance.
vi) Instrumentalities
Instrumentality is the channel or code of communication. It deals with what is used in effecting the communication. The communication may be conducted via a computer, radio, audio-visual instrument or telephone.
vii) Norms
Norms are behaviours and interpretations given to speech events. Norms deal with the reactions happening in communication. These are the ways how the people involved scream, shout, cry or laugh.
viii) Genre
Genre is the style of communication in the speech context. Genre deals with the process of the communication like report, lecture, chat, dialog, discussion, etc.
It is easy for students to memorize these eight components of speech events using the mnemonic acronym SPEAKING.
V. CONCLUSION
Speech acts and speech events have many characteristics in common; however, even within one language community such as country or state, region or province, there are clear differences in the ways and manner of communication. Linguists often do their research on the sociolinguistic norms. Pronunciation and grammar are often used to provide information about the standard variety of a given language; however, linguists also pay their attention to other varieties in their investigation.
Speech acts and speech events are studied to show the ways that language used by individuals in the society. Using language in conventional rules, language speakers show their social contexts where they are affected by many factors. Speakers in different regions can understand the dialects in their country even though dialects have different rules of grammar and various forms of vocabulary.
VI. SUMMARY
One language user who can speak two or more different dialects or varieties of one language will show the same results of speech acts and speech events. According to Austin and Searle, the basic acts or functions of speech in a given society develops speech acts. Language use has six functions of speech acts to express intentions, interpretations and meanings. On the contrary, speech events giving adequate interpretation to communication within the society. There are eight different components for analyzing human speech in order to reveal the social situations within.
which communication prevails. Speech acts and speech events aim at showing human communication as bearer of meaning relating to a society’s use of language.
VII. EXERCISES
1. What is the basis for speech acts theory?
2. What are ‘key’ and ‘norm’ as components in speech events?
3. What is the difference between speech events and speech acts?
4. What is representative? Give your own example.
5. What is directive? Give your own example.
6. What is expressive? Give your own example.
Good luck!
nguon VI OLET
